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Full Duplex : In a full-duplex system, both parties can communicate with each other simultaneously.

Beamforming : Beamforming or spatial filtering is a signal processing technique used in sensor arrays for directional signal transmission or reception. Beamforming can be used for radio or sound waves. (which Tesla would have us understand as being the same thing..) It has found numerous applications in radar, sonar, seismology, wireless communications, radio astronomy, acoustics and biomedicine. Adaptive beamforming is used to detect and estimate the signal of interest at the output of a sensor array by means of optimal (e.g. least-squares) spatial filtering and interference rejection.

Today’s wireless networks face one critical challenge: the increasing number of users and devices are consuming more data than ever before. Still, the telecom carriers have to restrict them to the same radio spectrum frequency band that they have always used. This means that each user is allocated a limited amount of bandwidth, leading to slower speeds and frequent disconnections.

As the number of devices connected to wireless networks increases, the shortage of frequency band resources will become even more prominent. We continue to share the limited bandwidth of an extremely narrow spectrum. This has a major impact on user experience.

Millimeter waves, also known as extremely high frequency (EHF), is a band of radio frequencies that is well suited for 5G networks. Compared to the frequencies below 5 GHz previously used by mobile devices, millimeter wave technology allows transmission on frequencies between 30 GHz and 300 GHz. These frequencies are called millimeter waves because they have wavelengths between 1 mm and 10 mm, while the wavelengths of the radio waves currently used by smartphones are mostly several dozen centimeters.

So far, only radar systems and satellites use millimeter waves. However, now some mobile network providers have also started using millimeter waves (for example, to transmit data between two fixed points, such as base stations). Nonetheless, the use of millimeter wave frequencies to connect mobile users to nearby base stations is an entirely new approach.

People are just one projected part of the many users of 5G networks. Autonomous vehicles will need that 1-ms latency of 5G networks to safely steer through traffic and maintain awareness of the traffic around them by means of vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communications. In addition, potentially billions of Internet of Things (IoT) sensors may be adding their data contributions to 5G networks within the next decade, giving people instant access to information about different things and environments around them. Due to this projected massive bandwidth consumption, developers see mmWave frequencies providing the bandwidth to make 5G possible.

However, there are many reasons why mmWave equipment has remained within astronomy, military, and research applications for so many years, beyond the high cost of the components and the relative scarcity of test equipment for aligning and evaluating the hardware. Electromagnetic (EM) energy at those higher frequencies suffers a great deal of path loss through the air (especially through air with high humidity) compared to lower-frequency signals with longer wavelengths.

Signals at 24 GHz and above can be absorbed by any objects in their propagating path, such as buildings, trees, even the hand of someone holding the smartphone that’s sending the mmWave signals to a cell site to connect with a listener. But mmWave frequencies also have benefits, in addition to the generous bandwidths they offer, such as their use of much smaller antennas (to fit those smaller wavelengths) compared to lower frequencies. The small size of these antennas makes it possible to pack many of them together into small form factors to benefit from antenna arrays.

Architecturally Speaking…

The architecture of 5G networks will be much different than earlier wireless-network generations, in part because of the use of mmWave frequencies. Smaller antennas will be used in mobile handsets to transmit and receive those higher-frequency signals but, as noted, the propagation distances for mmWave frequencies is less than for signals at the lower frequencies traditionally used in cellular networks.

As a result, 5G network infrastructure must be erected with many more, smaller cell sites or base stations than lower-frequency wireless networks
In addition, within those smaller cells, many antennas will be used to produce three-dimensional (3D) antenna beams, as part of a process known as beamforming.

It is a technology that has long been in use by the military as part of phased-array radar systems, to create and direct high-energy pulses for reflection from a target. In 5G systems, multiple-element antennas in closely spaced, smaller base stations will use hundreds of antenna elements to form directional beams for transmission and to receive similar 3D beams from adjacent base stations. A user with a mobile handset will have an antenna array with much fewer elements, possibly around 30 within a battery-powered mobile device, to send and receive signals within microwave and mmWave frequency bands

The infrastructure for 5G wireless networks will employ many more closely spaced base stations than earlier wireless networks, to support the shorter propagation distances of mmWave signals.

Forward-looking companies such as Qualcomm, Skyworks, and Ericsson have been at work on 5G components and subsystems for some time. Qualcomm has worked closely with the 3GPP on developing its 5G NR standard as a means of cost-effectively incorporating mmWave technology into compact 5G base stations and mobile handsets. It will do so using 3D beamforming and multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antenna techniques.

The company has developed smart, closed-loop algorithms for beam switching, steering, and tracking to maximize the amount of energy transmitted and received between 5G access points at mmWave frequencies. These algorithms look for reflected energy when a mmWave line-of-sight (LOS) signal path is blocked by a building or other obstruction, and combine the signal energy from alternative signal paths into the maximum received signal energy.

Extensive over-the-air (OTA) testing of prototype 5G NR base station units and mobile devices has been conducted, even within vehicles moving at speeds to 30 mph, and reliable communications at mmWave frequencies were achieved even through the walls of buildings.
Advances in semiconductor and integrated-circuit (IC) technologies will play major roles in the development of affordable integrated and modular circuit solutions for 5G base stations and mobile devices, especially with the complexity of mmWave antennas and radio circuits. Components for mmWave frequencies, both active and passive, have traditionally been expensive—even the coaxial connectors (depending upon frequency) for hybrid circuits were precision machined and expensive. But the imminent buildup of 5G networks and its expanding contingent of mobile devices has brought a new awareness to the high-frequency industry concerning the need for more cost-effective components, circuit materials, and test instruments for frequencies above 24 GHz.

Microwave weapons

Although some devices are labelled as microwave weapons, the microwave range is commonly defined as being between 300 MHz and 300 GHz which is within the RF range —these frequencies having wavelengths of 1–1000 micrometers. Some examples of weapons which have been publicized by the military are as follows:

Active Denial System is a millimeter wave source that heats the water in a human target’s skin and thus causes incapacitating pain. It was developed by the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory and Raytheon for riot-control duty. Though intended to cause severe pain while leaving no lasting damage, concern has been voiced as to whether the system could cause irreversible damage to the eyes. There has yet to be testing for long-term side effects of exposure to the microwave beam. It can also destroy unshielded electronics. The device comes in various sizes including attached to a humvee.

Vigilant Eagle is a proposed airport defense system that directs high-frequency microwaves towards any projectile that is fired at an aircraft. The system consists of a missile-detecting and tracking subsystem (MDT), a command and control system, and a scanning array. The MDT is a fixed grid of passive infrared (IR) cameras. The command and control system determines the missile launch point. The scanning array projects microwaves that disrupt the surface-to-air missile’s guidance system, deflecting it from the aircraft.

Bofors HPM Blackout is a high-powered microwave weapon that is said to be able to destroy at short distance a wide variety of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) electronic equipment. It is said to be not lethal to humans.

The effective radiated power (ERP) of the EL/M-2080 Green Pine radar makes it a hypothetical candidate for conversion into a directed-energy weapon, by focusing pulses of radar energy on target missiles. The energy spikes are tailored to enter missiles through antennas or sensor apertures where they can fool guidance systems, scramble computer memories or even burn out sensitive electronic components.

AESA radars mounted on fighter aircraft have been slated as directed energy weapons against missiles, however, a senior US Air Force officer noted: “they aren’t particularly suited to create weapons effects on missiles because of limited antenna size, power and field of view”. Potentially lethal effects are produced only inside 100 metres range, and disruptive effects at distances on the order of one kilometre. Moreover, cheap countermeasures can be applied to existing missiles.

Counter-electronics High Power Microwave Advanced Missile Project
The Counter-electronics High Power Microwave Advanced Missile Project (CHAMP) is a joint concept technology demonstration led by the Air Force Research Laboratory, Directed Energy Directorate at Kirtland Air Force Base to develop an air-launched directed-energy weapon capable of incapacitating or damaging electronic systems by means of an EMP (electromagnetic pulse. http://mil-embedded.com/news/raytheon-emp-missile-tested-by-boeing-usaf-research-lab/

The EEG (electroencephalograph) measures brainwaves of different frequencies within the brain. Rhythmicity in the EEG is a key variable in the coordination of cortical activity. Electrodes are placed on specific sites on the scalp to detect and record the electrical impulses within the brain. Frequency is the number of times a wave repeats itself within a second. It can be compared to the frequencies on a radio. Amplitude represents the power of electrical impulses generated by the brain. Volume or intensity of brain wave activity is measured in microvolts.
Raw EEG frequency bands include Gamma (higher than 30Hz); Beta (14-30Hz); Alpha (7.5-13Hz); Theta (3.5-7.5Hz); and Delta (less than 4Hz). Their ranges overlap one another along the frequency spectrum by 0.5 Hz or more
Schumann’s resonance forms a natural feedback loop with the human mind/body. Our brains and bodies developed in the biosphere, the EM environment conditioned by this cyclic
Like sound waves, the brain has its own set of vibrations it uses to communicate with itself and the rest of the body; EEG equipment distinguishes these waves by measuring the speed with which neurons fire in cycles per second. At their boundaries these waves can overlap somewhat, merging seamlessly into one another, so different researchers may give slightly different readings for the range of cycles per second. Rate of cycling determines the type of activity, kindling wave after wave over the whole surface of the brain, by igniting more neurons.
There is a harmonic relationship between the earth and our mind/bodies. Earth’s low frequency isoelectric field, the magnetic field of the earth, and the electrostatic field which emerges from our bodies are closely interwoven. Our internal rhythms interact with external rhythms, affecting our balance, REM patterns, health, and mental focus. SR waves probably help regulate our bodies’ internal clocks, affecting sleep/dream patterns, arousal patterns, and hormonal secretion (Başar, 2011; Başar, 2005).
The rhythms and pulsations of the human brain mirror those of the resonant properties of the terrestrial cavity, which functions as a waveguide. This natural frequency pulsation is not a fixed number, but an average of global readings, much like EEG is an average of brainwave readings. SR actually fluctuates, like brainwaves, due to geographical location, lightning, solar flares, atmospheric ionization and daily cycles (Nunez, 1995).
The most important slow rhythm is the daily rhythm sensed directly as change of light.
Rhythms connected with the daily rhythm are called circadian (an example is pineal gland melatonin secretion). Some experiments in the absence of natural light have shown that the basic human “clock” is actually slightly longer than one day, and closer to one lunar day (24h and 50 min). The lunar day has a similar period (24h and 50 min).
On a slower scale, a strong influence on the Earth is its geomagnetic field, which is influenced by the following periods: the Moon’s rotation (29.5 days); the Earth’s rotation (365.25 days); Sun spots (11 and 22 years); the nutation cycle (18.6 years); the rotation of the planets (88 days to 247.7 years); and all the way out to the galaxy’s rotation cycle (250 million years.)

In the range of human EEG, we have the Sun’s electromagnetic oscillation of 10 Hz, while the Earth-ionosphere SR system is resonant at frequencies in the theta, alpha, beta1 and beta2 bands.
Different species often have internal generators of environmental rhythms, which can be extremely precise, up to 10-4. The frequency of these oscillators is then phase locked loop (PLL) synchronized with the natural rhythms. Environmental synchronization sources are often called “zeitgeber”. The mechanism of optical synchronization can be shown. The presented rhythms should inspire a better understanding of the interaction of internal and external rhythms during specific states of consciousness.

“I consider this extremely important,” said Mr. Tesla. “Light cannot be anything else but a longitudinal disturbance in the ether, involving alternate compressions and rarefactions. In other words, light can be nothing else than a sound wave in the ether.”
This appears clearly, Mr. Tesla explained, if it is first realized that, there being no Maxwellian ether, there can be no transverse oscillation in the medium. The Newtonian theory, he believes, is in error, because it falls entirely in not being able to explain how a small candle can project particles with the same speed as the blazing sun, which has an immensely higher temperature.
“We have made sure by experiment,” said Mr. Tesla, “that light propagates with the same velocity irrespective of the character of the source. Such constancy of velocity can only be explained by assuming that it is dependent solely on the physical properties of the medium, especially density and elastic force.

Micro-Wave Possibilities.
Coming now to the wireless waves, it is still true that they are of the same character as light waves, only they are not transversal but longitudinal. As a matter of fact, radio transmitters emit nothing else but sound waves in the ether, and if the experts will realize this they will find it very much easier to explain the curious observations made in the application of these waves.
“It being a fact that radio waves are essentially like sound waves in the air, it is evident that the shorter the waves the more penetrative they would be. In 1899 I produced electromagnetic waves from one to two millimeters long and observed their actions at a distance. There has been a great hope expressed by various workers that introduction of these waves will have a revolutionary effect, but I am not sharing the opinion. They will be used, of course, but to a very limited extent. It is manifest that applications of the very short waves will not produce any appreciable effect upon the wireless art.
What about the possibilities of power transmission by wireless? the inquirer said.
Here again Mr. Tesla blames “a strange misconception of the experts” and “grievous errors” for retarding the idea. He believes that when it is accomplished, the power will travel on long waves and not on the wings of “uneconomically produced” short waves. He said he could vouch that the scheme of wireless power transmission is entirely practical.
“The application of short waves for power purposes,” said Mr. Tesla, “involves complicated and expensive apparatus for rectification or frequency transformation, which would make any serious attempt to carry out a project of this kind much more difficult from an economical point of view.”